República II

Excertos da Introdução de Maria Helena da Rocha Pereira, à sua tradução da “República”

Entre a concepção crematística de Céfalo e 0 paradoxo do Sofista, ficaram sem consistência os alicerces morais da Justiça. Por isso, no princípio do Livro II, se insiste em querer saber a natureza da justiça e da injustiça «sem ligar importância a salários nem a consequências».

Os dois irmãos de Platão querem, portanto, a demonstração de que a justiça é intrinsecamente boa. Para tanto, Sócrates propõe-se apreciar os factos em grande escala, o que lhe facilitará a tarefa. Por conseguinte, transfere a sua análise do indivíduo para a cidade.

Descrevem-se então as transformações de uma cidade, que, de primitiva, se torna em luxuosa, motivo por que começa a precisar de uma especialização de tarefas cada vez maior. Essa cidade carece de soldados que a defendam e preservem — de guardiões com um treino próprio. A educação deve dar-se-lhes, pela música e pela ginástica, à maneira tradicional grega60, principia a ser estudada em 376c. Mas música, para os Helenos, é a arte das Musas, em que a poesia não se dissocia dos sons. Ora as fábulas dos poetas, que costumam ensinar-se às crianças, estão repletas de falsidades sobre os deuses, a quem atribuem todos os defeitos, em vez de revelarem a divindade na perfeição dos seus atributos. No começo do livro já se haviam feito citações de versos que sugeriam que os deuses não eram garantia de justiça; agora declara-se abertamente que os poetas não servem para instruir a juventude.

• Parte I (L2): O que é a justiça no Estado e no indivíduo?
  • Introdução metodológica: o desafio lançado por Sócrates e seu método para observá-lo (II, 357a-369b)
    • Sócrates classifica a justiça entre as coisas que nós achamos desejáveis nelas mesmas e por suas consequências

      Retomada, para relançar a discussão, da tese de Thrasymacopor Glaucon e Adimante

      • Glaucon: Ninguém, se está seguro da impunidade, resistirá à tentação de cometer a injustiça (lenda do anel de Gyges)

        Adimante: O que importa não de ser justo mas de parecê-lo, tanto aos olhos dos homens como dos deuses

      Donde o desafio lançado a Sócrates: mostrar que a justiça é boa para seu possuidor

      • Método proposto por Sócrates para a isto responder
        • antes de considerar aquilo que é mais vantajoso, é preciso saber o que é a justiça
        • Sócrates propõe buscá-la então no Estado (polis), cuja estrutura é análoga àquela da alma individual
  • A) Gênese e desenvolvimento do Estado
    • A necessidade está na origem do Estado
      • ninguém se basta a si mesmo
      • as necessidades fundamentais (nutrição, habitação, vestimenta, etc.)

      O princípio da divisão natural do trabalho que dela resulta e sua consequências

      O aumento das necessidades além do necessário e suas consequências: doenças e guerras

      Daí, a necessidade de “Guardiões”

      Necessidade (segundo o Princípio da Especialização), que os Guardiões têm qualidade próprias que lhes permitem exercer sua tarefa

  • B) Condições requeridas para ser guardião do Estado (II, 374e – III, 412c)
    • 1 Qualidades naturais dos Guardiões
      • Aliança de duas qualidades opostas: a ferocidade (para com o inimigo) e a doçura (para com o amigo)
    • 2 Primeira educação dos Guardiões
      • A educação artística
        • O conteúdo das fábulas
          • Deve-se banir da educação todas as histórias falsas concernente os deuses (notadamente a ideia que a divindade é causa do mal, ou que ela é modificante ou enganosa

            Deve-se banir da educação todas as fábulas que fazem temer a morte (deve-se com efeito desenvolver a coragem) e de uma maneira geral tudo que é mentiroso

            Somente os chefes de Estado têm o direito de mentir no interesse do Estado

        • A dicção das fábulas
          • A dicção é simples e não imitativa
          • Em geral (segundo o Princípio de Especialização), deve-se banir toda prática de imitação
        • A música
          • Ela obedece aos mesmo princípios que a poesia
        • Conclusão sobre a educação artística
          • Correspondência entre a beleza e a harmonia musical e seus efeitos sobre a alma
      • A educação física, seus princípios e suas metas
        • A ginástica obedece ao mesmo princípio que a educação artística (a simplicidade) e tem por meta produzir a saúde.

          Em consequência, a tarefa dos médicos e aquela dos juízes é de manter a saúde ou a justiça (mais do que restaurá-las).

          • Quais são os melhores médicos e os melhores juízes.

          A ginástica deve desenvolver as qualidades morais mais do que as físicas.

          • Papéis respectivos da educação artística e física para este fim

LIBRO II

357a Glaucón: la justicia no es vista como un bien en sí mismo

Bienes que deseamos por sí mismos, que deseamos por sus consecuencias y que deseamos por ambas cosas. La justicia es colocada por la mayoría en la segunda clase, como algo en sí mismo penoso, y sólo deseable por sus consecuencias.

358e Glaucón: la justicia no es cultivada voluntariamente

Los hombres sufren más al ser víctimas de injusticias que lo que disfrutan al cometerlas; por eso la justicia consiste en un acuerdo para no sufrir ni cometer injusticias. Sólo cultiva la justicia el que es impotente para cometer injusticia. Mito de Giges.

362d Adimanto: es preferible la injusticia a la justicia

Cuando los injustos son ricos pueden reparar cualquier delito y librarse de los males del más allá. Incluso se puede persuadir a los dioses.

368a Sócrates: nacimiento del Estado sano

Se buscará la justicia en el Estado (pólis) primeramente, y luego en el individuo. El Estado nace cuando el individuo no se autoabastece sino que necesita de otros, por lo cual se asocia con los demás. Estas necesidades son: 1) de alimentación, 2) de vivienda y 3) de vestimenta. Los expertos en cada actividad producirán para todos los demás, recibiendo a cambio los productos que necesitan. Se llevará una vida austera.

372d Tránsito hacia el Estado enfermo

Glaucón: una sociedad de cerdos no sería distinta. Sócrates: pues entonces habrá que añadir cocineros, médicos, músicos, modistas, etc. Será un Estado enfermo o lujoso, cuyo territorio debe agrandarse a costa del vecino: origen de la guerra y del ejército. El ejército debe ser profesional.

374e Cualidades que deben tener los militares

Serán seleccionados como militares o guardianes los que posean agudeza, rapidez, fuerza y valentía; deben ser mansos con sus compatriotas y feroces con sus enemigos.

376c La educación de los guardianes, la música: los textos

Hay que rechazar la mayoría de los mitos de Homero y Hesíodo, que presentan a los dioses como criminales o combatiendo entre sí.

379a Pautas para hablar de Dios (peri theologías) en los textos

Hay que representar a Dios tal como es: bueno, y por ende que no puede ser causa del mal. No ha de permitirse que los poetas presenten a dioses haciendo mal o transformándose: lo excelente no es susceptible de modificación; tampoco mintiendo, pues la verdadera mentira es odiada por dioses y hombres, y la mentira en palabras, que es útil a los hombres, no sería útil para un dios.

357a: Glaucon, as devil’s advocate, renews Thrasymachus’ challenge. – 359a: His speech against justice: (i) justice has its origin in a compromise; (ii) is practised only because unavoidable (the Gyges story) (359c); (iii) is desirable only for its rewards, which can be gained by the mere appearance of justice (360e). – 362d: Adeimantus’ speech reinforcing Glaucon’s critique. Two ways of describing justice are widespread: as something praiseworthy not for itself but for its rewards (363a), or as something dissociated from pleasure and happiness (364a); both these views tend to corrupt the young (365b). Socrates is requested to praise justice for itself, not for the reputation it brings (367b). – 368a: Socrates comes to the defence of justice. He proposes to look for justice in the city first, then for its equivalent in the individual; and begins by imagining the origins of civic life (369a). – 372c: In response to Glaucon’s objection that this hypothetical city is uncivilised, Socrates describes instead a luxurious city. He proposes that a professional army will be needed to guard the city (373e), made up of guardians who must be fierce to enemies but gentle to their own people (375c), and educated with special care (376d). Traditional stories about the gods are to be censored (377b); god should be presented to them as good, and as a cause only of good (379a); also as unchanging (380d), and as refraining from deception (381e).

Thrasymachus is pacified, but the intrepid Glaucon insists on continuing the argument. He is not satisfied with the indirect manner in which, at the end of the last book, Socrates had disposed of the question ‘Whether the just or the unjust is the happier.’ He begins by dividing goods into three classes:—first, goods desirable in themselves; secondly, goods desirable in themselves and for their results; thirdly, goods desirable for their results only. He then asks Socrates in which of the three Jowett1892: 358classes he would place justice. In the second class, replies Socrates, among goods desirable for themselves and also for their results. ‘Then the world in general are of another mind, for they say that justice belongs to the troublesome class of goods which are desirable for their results only. Socrates answers that this is the doctrine of Thrasymachus which he rejects. Glaucon thinks that Thrasymachus was too ready to listen to the voice of the charmer, and proposes to consider the nature of justice and injustice in themselves and apart from the results and rewards of them which the world is always dinning in his ears. He will first of all speak of the nature and origin of justice; secondly, of the manner in which men view justice as a necessity and not a good; and thirdly, he will prove the reasonableness of this view.

Republic II.
‘To do injustice is said to be a good; to suffer injustice an evil. As the evil is discovered by experience to be greater than the Jowett1892: 359good, the sufferers, who cannot also be doers, make a compact that they will have neither, and this compact or mean is called justice, but is really the impossibility of doing injustice. No one would observe such a compact if he were not obliged. Let us suppose that the just and unjust have two rings, like that of Gyges Jowett1892: 360in the well-known story, which make them invisible, and then no difference will appear in them, for every one will do evil if he can. And he who abstains will be regarded by the world as a fool for his pains. Men may praise him in public out of fear for themselves, but they will laugh at him in their hearts. (Cp. Gorgias, 483 B.)

‘And now let us frame an ideal of the just and unjust. Imagine the unjust man to be master of his craft, seldom making mistakes Jowett1892: 361and easily correcting them; having gifts of money, speech, strength—the greatest villain bearing the highest character: and at his side let us place the just in his nobleness and simplicity—being, not seeming—without name or reward—clothed in his justice only—the best of men who is thought to be the worst, and let him die as he has lived. I might add (but I would rather put the rest into the mouth of the panegyrists of injustice—they will tell you) that the just man will be scourged, racked, bound, will have his eyes put out, and will at last be crucified (literally impaled )—and all this because he ought to have preferred seeming Jowett1892: 362to being. How different is the case of the unjust who clings to appearance as the true reality! His high character makes him a ruler; he can marry where he likes, trade where he likes, help his friends and hurt his enemies; having got rich by dishonesty he can worship the gods better, and will therefore be more loved by them than the just.’

I was thinking what to answer, when Adeimantus joined in the already unequal fray. He considered that the most important point of all had been omitted:—‘Men are taught to be just for Jowett1892: 363the sake of rewards; parents and guardians make reputation the incentive to virtue. And other advantages are promised by them of a more solid kind, such as wealthy marriages and high offices. There are the pictures in Homer and Hesiod of fat sheep and heavy fleeces, rich corn-fields and trees toppling with fruit, which the gods provide in this life for the just. And the Orphic poets add a similar picture of another. The heroes of Musaeus and Eumolpus lie on couches at a festival, with garlands on their heads, enjoying as the meed of virtue a paradise of immortal drunkenness. Some go further, and speak of a fair posterity in the third and fourth generation. But the wicked they bury in a slough and make them carry water in a sieve: and in this life they attribute to them the infamy which Glaucon was assuming to be the lot of the just who are supposed to be unjust.

Jowett1892: 364‘Take another kind of argument which is found both in poetry and prose:—“Virtue,” as Hesiod says, “is honourable but difficult, vice is easy and profitable.” You may often see the wicked in great prosperity and the righteous afflicted by the will of heaven. And mendicant prophets knock at rich men’s doors, promising to atone for the sins of themselves or their fathers in an easy fashion with sacrifices and festive games, or with charms and invocations to get rid of an enemy good or bad by divine help and at a small charge;—they appeal to books professing to be written by Musaeus and Orpheus, and carry away the minds of whole cities, and promise to “get souls out of purgatory;” and if we Jowett1892: 365refuse to listen to them, no one knows what will happen to us.

‘When a lively-minded ingenuous youth hears all this, what will be his conclusion? “Will he,” in the language of Pindar, “make justice his high tower, or fortify himself with crooked deceit?” Justice, he reflects, without the appearance of justice, is misery and ruin; injustice has the promise of a glorious life. Appearance is master of truth and lord of happiness. To appearance then I will turn,—I will put on the show of virtue and trail behind me the fox of Archilochus. I hear some one saying that “wickedness is not easily concealed,” to which I reply that “nothing great is easy.” Union and force and rhetoric will do much; and if men say that they cannot prevail over the gods, still how do we know that there are gods? Only from the poets, who acknowledge Jowett1892: 366that they may be appeased by sacrifices. Then why not sin and pay for indulgences out of your sin? For if the righteous are only unpunished, still they have no further reward, while the wicked may be unpunished and have the pleasure of sinning too. But what of the world below? Nay, says the argument, there are atoning powers who will set that matter right, as the poets, who are the sons of the gods, tell us; and this is confirmed by the authority of the State.

‘How can we resist such arguments in favour of injustice? Add good manners, and, as the wise tell us, we shall make the best of both worlds. Who that is not a miserable caitiff will refrain from smiling at the praises of justice? Even if a man knows the better part he will not be angry with others; for he knows also that more than human virtue is needed to save a man, and that he only praises justice who is incapable of injustice.

‘The origin of the evil is that all men from the beginning, heroes, poets, instructors of youth, have always asserted “the temporal dispensation,” the honours and profits of justice. Had Jowett1892: 367we been taught in early youth the power of justice and injustice inherent in the soul, and unseen by any human or divine eye, we should not have needed others to be our guardians, but every one would have been the guardian of himself. This is what I want you to show, Socrates;—other men use arguments which rather tend to strengthen the position of Thrasymachus that “might is right;” but from you I expect better things. And please, as Glaucon said, to exclude reputation; let the just be thought unjust and the unjust just, and do you still prove to us the superiority of justice.’ . . .